MainThe growing divide between the demand for computing resources and the performance of digital hardware necessitates the development of post-complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) architectures that can achieve ultra-high computational throughput at ultra-low energies. An extreme example of this comes from the field of deep learning, where the computation required to train state-of-the-art deep neural networks grew by over 300,000× between 2015 and 2020, doubling every 3.4 months1,2, w...